Visual depictions were created to illustrate the dynamic interplays of the elements in Kohlberg’s last stage of his life. This was achieved by using the last version of the BTHD Framework by combining the BTHD and the PPCT Model. Figure 1 shows the context components applicable to Kohlberg during his career success years stage (Botes, 2022; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

The microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) in Kohlberg’s career success stage relates to the interactions he had with those within his academic sphere, his identity as an academic, researcher and moral educator, as well as his drive to assist humanity in a concrete and realistic approach (DeVries, 1991; Springer, 2005). Kohlberg’s behaviour and physical appearance were also noted to have developed into that of an academic (Walsh, 2000). Kohlberg interacted with students, colleagues, friends, scholars and critics (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Snarey, 2012; Walsh, 2000).

Walsh (2000) explained that while Kohlberg became the authority on moral development, he did not only interact with people who promoted his research, but he also surrounded himself with his critics, becoming friends with many. Additional significant individuals within Kohlberg’s academic microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) were the participants in his research. This microsystem was deemed important to include in the findings, as the participants became an inspiration for Kohlberg to become a moral educator (Garz, 2009; Springer, 2005; Walsh, 2000).

Kohlberg’s personal life in his microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) included his mental and physical health due to contracting chronic giardiasis. It also included his interactions with his wife Lucille, his extended family, as well as his girlfriend and colleague Ann Higgins after his marriage to Lucille had ended (Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005; Walsh, 2000). Snarey (2012), Springer (2005), and Walsh (2000) recalled that while Kohlberg experienced professional triumph, he suffered from depression due to his continuous gastric challenges and his deteriorating relationship with Lucille.

Although the literature explaining the reasons for Kohlberg and Lucille’s marriage disintegration is limited, their marriage was reported to be unhappy. They separated in 1974 and divorced 11 years later in 1985 (Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005). During this time, the interactions of Kohlberg with his extended family were illuminated when Kohlberg’s sister Marjorie stated that despite his deteriorating health, Kohlberg remained a source of support for the family (Fowler et al., 1988). Due to Kohlberg’s chronic giardiasis and his depression, his microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) also evolved to include alternative health and medical professionals (Springer, 2005).

Although the literature does not discuss Kohlberg’s interactions with health and medical professionals, it is assumed that he would have interacted with them, when he suffered a nervous breakdown in 1979 and a suicide attempt in January 1987 (Garz, 2009; Higgins, 1991; Springer, 2005). Guided partially by his own suffering, towards the end of Kohlberg’s life, his microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) changed once more to self-exploration through religion and spirituality (Fowler et al., 1988; Snarey, 2012). Due to his imminent death, Kohlberg reflected on different questions such as: ‘How to face death?’ and ‘Why be just in an unjust world?’, Kohlberg found comfort in believing that we are a part of the cosmos which is continuously evolving and intrinsically lawful. Once this is understood, we acquire an awareness of moral relief (Higgins, 1991; Zizek et al., 2015).

The coinciding mesosystem elements from Kohlberg’s microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) were his changes in home structures. His home structures changed three times during this stage. It altered from a nuclear family during his marriage to Lucille, to a split family during his separation and divorce from Lucille in 1985. Then Kohlberg’s home structure changed once more when he dated and become engaged to a colleague, Ann (Springer, 2005). Other mesosystem elements were his extended family and the centre Kohlberg founded at Harvard. There was a negative interaction between Kohlberg’s physical health and his marriage to Lucille versus the Centre of Moral Development and Education at Harvard University (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Snarey, 2012; Walsh, 2000).

The more successful Kohlberg’s career became, the more his marriage and health deteriorated (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Snarey, 2012; Walsh, 2000). Other factors contributing to the decline of Kohlberg’s health and the deterioration of his marriage to Lucille was his demanding work schedule and his over-availability and sociability with people around him (Springer, 2005). Power (1991) explained that many people consistently queued to meet with Kohlberg. Despite Kohlberg’s declining health, he adhered to a demanding workload. His sister Marjorie begged him to take time off work, so that his health could improve (Fowler et al., 1988).

However, Kohlberg continued to sustain a demanding work schedule (Fowler at al., 1988; Higgins, 1991; Snarey, 2012). Other mesosystems were the hospital environment and the Kibbutz where he conducted his research, and the Just Community project. An additional environment noted within the mesosystem was Kohlberg’s holiday house at Cape Cod (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Higgins, 1991; Kurtines & Gewirtz, 1991; Springer, 2005; Zizek et al., 2015).

Kohlberg’s exosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) included the vocational fields of academia and moral-based education (DeVries, 1991; Kurtines & Gewirtz, 1991). Both of these had successes and setbacks. Due to Kohlberg’s success with his theory of moral development, he had international people come to meet him at the Centre for Moral Education and Development (Snarey, 2012; Walsh, 2000). An example of a setback Kohlberg encountered was to his professional reputation when it was discovered that moral development was bi-directional. This contradicted Kohlberg’s doctoral research findings claiming that it was unidirectional (Kohlberg, 1958; Springer, 2005; Zizek et al., 2015).

Kohlberg’s macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) in the last stage of his life was made up of the economic, social and political systems of capitalism, democracy and anti-communism. Kuhmerker (1991) provided an illustration of how the macrosystem had a direct reciprocal influence on Kohlberg’s environment (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). This was shown though an account provided by Sprinthall in Kuhmerker (1991). Sprinthall explained that the faculty at Harvard University was angry over the Nixon-Kissinger invasion of Laos and Cambodia between 1969 to 1973. Despite this, people were reluctant to take the departments condemnation to the Nixon administration, however, Kohlberg volunteered for this (Kuhmerker, 1991).

In this section, the context components pertaining to Kohlberg’s last stage of life, his career success stage were presented (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The next section explores the person components relevant to this stage of Kohlberg’s life (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

Figure 2 illustrates the person components relevant to Kohlberg during his career success years stage (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

During this period, Kohlberg’s characteristics of force are identified as openness to others, curiosity and inquisitiveness. The negative characteristics of inattention and impulsiveness were also seen in some of Kohlberg’s behaviours such as when he continued to ram his car for a second time into the brick wall at the Larsen parking lot (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Kuhmerker, 1991). Prior to Kohlberg contracting chronic giardiasis, he possessed the resource characteristics of observation, knowledge, insight and skills in his work environment (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

However, after Kohlberg became ill in 1971/1972, he became known as being peculiar and unreliable at work. Kohlberg excused himself from meetings due to his painful physical symptoms (DeVries, 1991; Higgins, 1991; Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005). A change in Kohlberg’s demand characteristics (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) was also evident when Marjorie confirmed the shift in Kohlberg’s demand characteristics from being an enthusiastic, amusing and optimistic individual to becoming an agitated, erratic and pessimistic individual (Fowler et al., 1988).

Kohlberg’s physical appearance was also highlighted through a story his friend Helkama shared. When Kohlberg arrived at his hotel in Finland, he saw a drunk man lying by the hotel entrance and tried to assist him. The doorman at the hotel saw this and assumed that Kohlberg was also homeless, due to the way he dressed (Zizek et al., 2015). This section within Kohlberg’s last stage of life, his career success stage, described the context and person components relevant to this stage. A discussion of the time components relevant to this stage follows (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

The time component within Kohlberg’s career success stage (from 1968 to 1987) is divided into two macrotime categories. Those are Kohlberg’s family origins and the historical context.

The first area explored during Kohlberg’s career success years was his interpersonal relationships. In Kohlberg’s microsystem he focused on establishing and maintaining friendships with students, colleagues, scholars and critics. Snarey (2012) explained that Kohlberg was eager to get involved in his students lives. This resulted in many of his students becoming his colleagues and friends. However, Kohlberg’s sociability and over accessibility to others also created an enmeshment between Kohlberg’s personal life and his vocation/academic life. After Kohlberg became sick with chronic giardiasis, his interpersonal relationships changed towards a dysfunctional outcome (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

Kohlberg was perceived to have changed from possessing the demand characteristics of optimism, humour and enthusiasm to possessing the characteristics of pessimism, instability and irritability (Fowler et al., 1988). Kohlberg’s physical appearance in his characteristics of force, demonstrated how it formed his environment’s response to him within his microsystem (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). This was seen through Helkama’s story of Kohlberg in Finland (Zizek et al., 2015).

Despite Kohlberg’s appearance, his demand characteristic of caring stayed strong. According to Marjorie, Kohlberg was the person the extended family would turn to for support (Fowler et al., 1988). However, the demand characteristics of being unstable, pessimistic and frantic also impacted on the quality of the interactions between Kohlberg and his environment, shaping it to become more negative (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Thus, it is assumed that Kohlberg’s professional triumphs and the demands it placed on his time, as well as his poor mental and physical health, combined with his over-availability to others took their toll on Kohlberg and Lucille’s marriage (Kurtines & Gewirtz, 1991; Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005; Zizek et al., 2015).

This reduced the effectiveness of the proximal processes, leading to a dysfunctional outcome in their marriage (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). In addition, Kohlberg’s parents’ divorce in his childhood and adolescence years, could have further influenced Kohlberg’s interactions and perceptions within his own marriage to Lucille (Fowler et al., 1988). Although there was limited literature on the impact of Kohlberg’s separation and divorce from Lucille, Helkama recalled that Kohlberg seemed disorientated due to their separation (Zizek et al., 2015).

The second outcomes area related to Kohlberg’s mental health within his success years was his career. Between the years of 1968–1970, his proximal processes in the academic sphere were functioning at an optimal level (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). However, due to Kohlberg’s chronic giardiasis, the efficiency of his proximal processes from 1971/1972 onwards was challenged. He often had to excuse himself from meetings and gradually developed the resource characteristics of being unreliable at work (DeVries, 1991; Higgins, 1991; Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005).

Demonstrating the impact of Kohlberg’s poor health on his work, before his death, Kohlberg’s physical pain was so extreme, that he could no longer focus on his work and function effectively. These accounts pointed to the deterioration of Kohlberg’s once optimally functioning proximal processes. This led to a dysfunctional outcome in productivity levels within his career sphere, resulting in Kohlberg eventually handing over a lot of his own work to his colleagues and students (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; DeVries, 1991; Rest et al., 1988).

The third area considered in relation to Kohlberg’s mental health within the proximal processes during Kohlberg’s career success years stage was his challenges versus protective factors. While Kohlberg’s marriage to Lucille soured, he had the protective factors of his love for his work within his mesosystem and exosystem, as well as his friendships with his colleagues, students and friends within his microsystem. After Kohlberg’s marriage to Lucille ended, he also had the protective factor of his relationship with Ann Higgins within his microsystem (Higgins, 1991; Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005; Walsh, 2000). These protective factors assisted Kohlberg to achieve a competence outcome with some of his interpersonal relationships (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

One important area where protective factors failed to mitigate Kohlberg’s challenges was with his physical health. In the last few years of Kohlberg’s life, he tried to find a cure for his giardiasis, after modern medicine failed to help him. This was evident when Kohlberg travelled to Finland after reading that the Finnish doctors had come up with a new treatment for giardiasis. Another example was Kohlberg experimenting with different unconventional remedies (Springer, 2005; Zizek et al., 2015). In addition, despite Kohlberg’s ailing health, he continued working to a relentless work schedule (Fowler et al., 1988). Kohlberg found it difficult to take time off work to recover.

As a result, there was a complementary relationship between Kohlberg’s deteriorating health and his levels of productivity at work. While his proximal processes once functioned optimally within his vocation, his deteriorating health and mental health challenges eventually led to an outcome of dysfunction with Kohlberg’s productivity levels (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Despite the deterioration in Kohlberg’s productivity levels, the historical context in the USA served as a protective factor for Kohlberg reputation. Rest et al. (1988) explained that the social, political and cultural atmosphere in the USA within his macrosystem increased Kohlberg’s popularity. These protective factors assisted in maintaining competence outcomes within Kohlberg’s career (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

The final theme related to Kohlberg’s mental health was his visionary qualities. Kohlberg showed visionary qualities in his development of a seventh stage in his theory of moral development, referred to as the metaphysical stage (Higgins, 1991; Zizek et al., 2015). The seventh stage provided him with comfort as it answered questions such as ‘Why live?’ (Higgins, 1991; Zizek et al., 2015). These activities gave Kohlberg’s proximal processes a competence outcome within this area (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

Although the information regarding Kohlberg’s mental health was limited, this area is important, as his mental health probably played an important aspect in the tragic ending to his life. During Kohlberg’s childhood, there is no mention of his mental health. During Kohlberg’s time with the Haganah forces, the literature implied that he might had experienced mental health difficulties. This was apparent when Kohlberg’s friend Gutmann, who met Kohlberg when they served together on the Haganah boat for a year, revealed that Kohlberg had suffered from mood swings throughout the years (Langley, 1987).

Despite this revelation, the literature did not bring to light mental health difficulties during Kohlberg’s early career substage within his career establishment years. This could mean that during Kohlberg’s time with the US Marines and the Haganah forces, his possible mental health issues were situational, due to the inherent stress and anxiety from seeing the devastation from WWII and from breaking international law by smuggling refugees into Palestine (DeVries, 1991; Higgins, 1991; Snarey, 2012). However, the suggestion from Gutmann that Kohlberg suffered from mood swings throughout the years (Langley, 1987) could signify that his mental health challenges were present prior to him contracting chronic giardiasis.

However, Kohlberg’s mental health was not specifically discussed in the literature until he contracted giardiasis (DeVries, 1991; Higgins, 1991; Snarey, 2012). The deterioration of Kohlberg’s physical health, and his separation and subsequent divorce from Lucille worsened his mental health (Snarey, 2012; Springer, 2005). Perpetuating Kohlberg’s poor mental health was his disinclination to take a break from work or to ease his workload so that he could recover (Fowler et al., 1988; Zizek et al., 2015). Further exasperating Kohlberg’s mental health difficulties was that he endured physical and mental anguish in silence (Walsh, 2000).

The authors’ experience is that often society holds gifted or extraordinary individuals to unrelenting standards with their mental health. In Kohlberg’s case, society’s high expectations were perpetuated further as he was also working within the helping vocation. Society often perceives individuals in helping professions to be able to efficiently attain holistic well-being due to their specialised knowledge and training. Perhaps this was why Kohlberg continued with a demanding work schedule, thereby allowing him to maintain the image of functioning optimally despite his difficulties (Botes, 2022). This corresponds with Kohlberg’s friends and family being angry with him for committing suicide and feeling guilty for not being able to help him. An example of this was when his friends and family stated, “if only we would have been more sensitive to his state of mind, perhaps it would have never led to this” (Fowler et al., 1988, p. 219).

With the increased rates of suicidal ideation and suicide due to the lasting impact of Covid-19 on society (high unemployment rates, new mental health challenges and social isolation) (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2023), this article highlights the importance of suicide awareness through destigmatizing suicide and emphasising the importance of approaching mental health challenges through a holistic approach in overcoming crises.

The psychobiographical analysis of Kohlberg in the last stage of his life, using Bronfenbrenner’s BTHD Framework (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) illustrated the importance of exploring the complexities and multi-layered factors involved in understanding motivating factors which increase chances of suicide, as well as protective factors which could mitigate suicidal ideation and intent. Understanding the complexities involved in factors increasing the risk of suicide allows for challenges to be addressed and worked through more thoroughly to attain greater equilibrium in overall mental health well-being (Botes, 2022).

This study endeavoured to explore the utility in Bronfenbrenner’s BTHD in offering an intricate view of the nuances and complexities involved in understanding suicidality. By exploring the complex interactions between Kohlberg’s characteristics, environmental influences, family origins and historical context, this psychobiography illustrated how these interactions contributed to the functioning of his proximal processes and eventual suicide. Thus, this study demonstrated the helpfulness of this theoretical approach in offering a more interconnected understanding of factors associated with Kohlberg’s emotional deterioration and suicide. This psychobiography also contributes to research focused on Bioecological factors influencing the mental health and suicidality in high-performing individuals.